Changing gender equality
A generalised overview, with an emphasis on the western world
[For a white middle-class retired male this is probably a risky post – but I like taking risks.]
The traditional view in western countries up until the last 50 years or so was that ‘men were the breadwinners and women were the housewives’. However, social change has largely taken place with girls and women thriving in education and employment and being present in larger numbers (though not yet with total equality) in the boardroom, policy making and in government. The UK now has its first ever female Chancellor of the Exchequer – Rachel Reeves.
What have been the drivers behind such social change?
Rachel Reeves
1. Technology
The first factor in the western world was the development of time-saving domestic appliances. Historically, women had the burdens of domestic work: fetching water, making and washing clothes, cleaning the house, and preparing meals. With the development of washing machines, dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, ready-made clothes, and convenience meals this amount of work was hugely reduced. Women’s time was freed up for employment.
[I have become a fan of the ‘spins-off’ of the drama series ‘Yellowstone’ on Paramount+. In the series ‘1923’ there is a scene where the ladies of the ranch, led by Helen Mirren, are in the ‘big city’ on an outing where they encounter a pavement seller of the new contraption – a washing machine. Their discussion on the matter is apposite.]
This situation is not the case for much of the rest of the world. In rural sub-Saharan Africa women also participate in the labour force in conditions where they do not have labour-saving devices. Here, women must fetch water and fuel, spending many hours on such unpaid work. They have very long workdays, so they often go without rest and leisure activities.
Other factors also play a part. In urban India, for example, middle-class families secure social respect and prestige if the man can provide for the family single-handedly. So even if women do have access to time-saving appliances, that does not lead to participation in the labour force.
The impact of technology therefore varies geographically.
2. Economic change
In the 1950s and 60s, ‘employed man’ could earn enough to provide for his family single-handedly. For example, in Detroit (USA), a man could get a job in a car factory, and even in places such as the Zambian Copperbelt, men found work in the mines. Their wages covered household costs. So, women’s employment was not seen as economically necessary. In many families, men resisted their wives gaining employment, feeling it reflected on their masculinity.
The 1970s brought changes to this prevailing attitude. This was mainly due to the average wages of men falling in relation to prices. De-industrialisation led to declining manufacturing, in turn driven by automation and globalisation. Factories in the western world moved overseas, where labour was cheaper – processes called off-shoring and out-sourcing.
Economic liberalisation in developed countries led to factory closures, job losses, wage cuts and rising consumer prices. A single wage-earner, the ‘employed man’, struggled to provide for his family. Female employment was increasingly seen as economically necessary and beneficial, even if it meant sacrificing social respect.
In developing countries, such as Bangladesh, Vietnam and Indonesia, there was growth in sectors specifically seeking female workers. Clothes factories often sought women as employees, stereotyping them as docile, unlikely to mobilise for higher wages, good at menial and repetitive tasks. Female employment rose in numbers.
Therefore, macroeconomic change shaped what households saw as economically beneficial, and this led to behavioural change.
3. Changing perceptions
The perception of women’s abilities changed as more women entered the workforce, though for several years stereotypical attitudes continued to influence employment types. In the 1950s it was rare to see female doctors, lawyers, judges, and business leaders. Most of these roles were occupied by men with the pervading view that men were naturally more competent and deserving of such status.
Many people saw women doctors, lawyers, and pilots as outliers. They retained their gender stereotypes, presuming men were naturally better at these jobs. The notion of confirmation bias was key to these attitudes – when stereotypical views stay fixed, despite contradicting evidence. People only came to revise their gender stereotypes through repeated and prolonged observation of women demonstrating their equal competence in such valued domains.
Prevailing perceptions – beliefs about what others think – also played a role. Even if a woman does not personally endorse gender stereotypes, she may be reluctant to put herself forward for a traditionally masculine role (in certain forms of employment or decision-making) if she anticipates or experiences discrimination.
Such norm perceptions have been revised as support grew, and legislation enacted, for gender equality. Increased numbers of women going to university, being employed in professional jobs, being elected, has led to attitudinal and behavioural change.
Therefore, macroeconomic change led to people regarding female employment as beneficial. It is worth noting, however, that these social changes were slow, incremental, and, for some, controversial.
4. Urbanisation
Social change has happened faster in urban areas. City-dwellers have greater access to time-saving domestic appliances, and domestic services, thereby reducing the volume of household work. There are also more opportunities for women in urban areas: working in health services, education, services, government administration.
City living involves greater mixing with others, including people in a different social class. City-dwellers are exposed to a much more varied range of lifestyles and approaches to living. Over a short period of time, people revise their gender stereotypes and norm perceptions - a form of positive feedback.
The role of cities has not been standard around the world. In some societies urban women may remain out of employment if this increases social respect - as seen in some oil-producing countries of north Africa and the middle east. Cities may even contribute to gender inequalities. In India, boys are valued, and families often prefer sons. They are more able to realise this preference if they live in cities, where screening technologies facilitate sex-selective abortions.