Some Regenerating Places questions/answers

From the 2021 Edexcel Assessment materials

I haven’t posted any Edexcel questions and answers for a while. So, to rectify that:

[Some may be useful to students/teachers of other Boards too]

Evaluate the importance of rebranding to the success of rural regeneration. (20)

Rebranding is the process by which the perceived image of an area is changed such that it is more attractive for both investors and visitors. The main purpose of rebranding is to regenerate an area, whether urban or rural. For the latter, it is the case that rural areas no longer make most of their income from food production or other forms of primary sector activity such as fishing or forestry. Hence, there is more diversification into tourism, outdoor sports and other non-farming activities such as light industry, and artisan craft making. I shall examine the importance of such rebranding using the case study of Croyde in north Devon.

For many people Croyde is a magical place with superb sandy beaches, and with a village that is steeped in old-world charm with thatched cottages. For the well-off, it is a desirable place to have a second home to live in a rural idyll. However, like many rural communities throughout the UK, Croyde’s agricultural economy has suffered in recent years. The mad cow disease epidemic of the late 1990s followed by the foot and mouth outbreak of 2001 damaged farming in the UK. ‘Buy British’ campaigns by government agencies and supermarkets have helped, but farming incomes have dropped. Employment opportunities beyond the primary sector are limited and this has led to significant out-migration of young working people to urban areas such as Taunton and Bristol. There has been a loss of community spirit and also a loss of artisan agricultural practices that help to bind the rural community together.

In an effort to reduce the loss of young people from the area and to stimulate growth in the tertiary sector, surfing has been used as a rebranding tool. Other rural areas have successfully used leisure activities as a means of diversifying their economies, for example hiking in the Lake District, skiing in European alpine areas, and equestrian sports in the Cotswolds. Along with Newquay, Croyde has set itself up as one of southwest England’s premium locations for surfing.

Croyde Bay and the neighbouring beaches of Putsborough and Woolacombe have always been blessed with perfect breakers. Using surfing as a rebranding strategy for the area began in the 1980s with the formation of the Croyde Surf Club. Throughout the summer months the beach and village centre now buzz with surfers and the amenities they require. The peak of activity comes with Croyde’s Gold Coast Oceanfest, which combines surfing and music and is held annually in mid-June.

The key players in bringing about and sustaining this rebranding strategy are made up of a mixture of public organisations and private investors. Local stakeholders have been instrumental in promoting, welcoming and supporting the surf community. Local farmers have converted buildings into bed and breakfast accommodation and turned fields into caravan parks. The North Devon District Council has supported developments by granting planning permissions that have allowed surfing amenities to develop but have also maintained Croyde’s rustic feel. The local parish council has set up the Deckchair Cinema, which is held in the village hall.

In conclusion, surfing has been successfully used as a rebranding tool in Croyde and the surrounding rural area. It has helped tackle the challenges created by the decline of the primary economic base. This has been done by providing the amenities required for surfing as well as supporting surfers through a mix of public and private initiatives. However, it is a challenge for stakeholders to resist temptations to overdevelop the area. This would jeopardise the rural charm which provides Croyde with a unique selling point.

For your local place and your contrasting place, evaluate the view that low income is the most important factor leading to deprivation. (20)

Answer 1

Local place – Stratford, London; Contrasting place – Cornwall

The factors leading to deprivation are arguably debatable for both Stratford and Cornwall resulting from their contrasting characteristics held.

To begin, some may argue that within Cornwall, low income is arguably the most important factor leading to deprivation. Whilst 75% of the population have income lower than the national average, just under 40% take-home incomes under £14k. This in turn means that they cannot afford to spend their money on luxuries but rather must prioritise basic needs and costs of living. With a move out of the primary sector of employment, Cornwall has failed to pick up significant investment and thus struggles with the impact of deprivation.

When considering the area of Stratford within Newham, it is arguable whether low income has had such a significant role in relation to deprivation. With the growth of Westfield as a retail and commercial hub now, the tertiary sector has significantly increased in relation to employment – meaning that whilst not earning as much as managerial roles, they still earn a decent living, often the living wage that in turn reduces the level of deprivation. Since 2012, Stratford has moved from the 2nd most deprived borough within the UK to the 25^th, arguably as a result of the influx of tertiary employment in this area.

It could be argued that social factors are arguably important to consider in relation to Stratford and the subsequent changes in demography seen. When looking at the breakdown of Newham, 78% of people are of an ethnic minority and this bringing with it a different set of cultures and beliefs to the area. In relation to this idea, some cultures do not allow women to work that in turn leaves a family dependent on a single income. This in turn can lead to further deprivation if this is not a sufficient wage, thus exacerbating problems within the borough itself.

Within Cornwall in which a majority of the population are white British, other social factors such as wide-scale unemployment may have a more important role. With the move to a post-production countryside, primary industries in the form of agriculture and farming are arguably less important as goods can be imported into the UK at a lower cost from other nations. This in turn can affect the level of deprivation felt within Cornwall as less income is generated.

Another factor that can lead to deprivation is the level of regeneration experienced within a region that in turn brings a changing group of people into an area. Whilst Cornwall’s location and connectivity within the UK limits its amount of investment, Stratford is seen as a haven for business. Following the London 2012 Olympics with the £9 billion investment into infrastructure and facilities, the demographics of the area have changed and gentrification has begun to take effect. As regeneration has been placed on the area, changing house prices and more unaffordable homes to local residents have exacerbated and marginalised the deprivation of some.

To conclude, whilst low income is particularly important in leading to deprivation within Cornwall, this idea is not the case in Stratford. Rather in this place, the changing demography as a result of regeneration is arguably most effective making the poorer members of society suffer drastically.

Answer 2

Deprivation occurs when people’s quality of life is low, because they lack the social, economic and environmental conditions most people would consider necessary. The index of multiple deprivation (IMD) measures deprivation in the UK using seven domains. Income and employment domains count for 45% of the IMD, suggesting that the economic aspect of deprivation is very important. However, health, education, crime and the built environment are also aspects of deprivation.

Anglesey is a largely rural island off the northwest coast of Wales that suffers from some types of deprivation. It contrasts with Middlesbrough, an urban area in the northeast of England which often features in lists of the most deprived parts of the country.

Middlesbrough ranks in the worst 10% in England for both income and employment. High levels of unemployment are linked to the decline in the steel and chemicals industries in the area since the 1980s. Deindustrialisation has had a major impact on the area. However, Middlesbrough also ranks in the bottom 10% in the education and skills domain. This means young people may lack the skills to enter the workforce and progress, so the future deprivation situation may be more related to this aspect of deprivation than current income levels. Middlesbrough’s industrial landscape has proved much harder to regenerate than other northern post-industrial cities such as Newcastle, Leeds and Manchester, so it has not benefited from processes such as gentrification and the creation of leisure destinations.

Anglesey, by contrast, is a largely rural area apart from small towns like Holyhead. Overall levels of deprivation are roughly at the average for Wales, as is income deprivation. However, employment levels are worse than the Welsh average, reflecting falling employment in farming, and the closure of Wylfa nuclear power station in 2015 (a major employer on the island). Deprivation on Anglesey is worst in the access to services and housing domains. This is because low population density limits rural service provision and people have to travel long distances to shops and other services, often at high cost in terms of petrol or public transport. Despite being economically peripheral, housing is expensive and in short supply. Anglesey is a popular location for second homes and as a retirement destination. Demand for housing has increased prices and reduced supply for local people, especially the young.

Both Middlesbrough and Anglesey have experienced economic restructuring and industrial change, creating income and employment deprivation. However, the process has been more severe in Middlesbrough, eroding its economy so much that low incomes and high unemployment are clearly the main factors determining the very high levels of deprivation. High levels of education and skills deprivation, not found on Anglesey, probably play a large role in Middlesbrough’s continuing deprivation problem. In contrast, on Anglesey the main determinants are housing and services deprivation. These are not easily solved even by higher incomes as they are caused by the isolated, rural nature of the island. Both places have suffered out-migration of young people in recent decades, although the reasons the young are leaving are not the same.

June 2019 [Need to access the Figures from the relevant paper]

With reference to Figure 2a and 2b and your own knowledge and understanding:

Evaluate the reasons why some regions are more successful than others. (20)

The key consideration here is the degree to which success can be measured and what criteria are used to evaluate such success. Success is often measured in terms of economic factors, such as GDP per capita, but other criteria should be used such as social factors (levels of education and life expectancy) and environmental factors such as levels of atmospheric pollution. It is noted that Figure 2a refers to each of these criteria in relation to the two regions of Belgium, Flanders and the Walloon region.

Examining Figure 2a, we can see that Flanders is a much more successful region in economic terms. The GPD per capita is 75% higher, despite having a much larger population, and unemployment is half that of the Walloon region. Furthermore, the Gross Value Added (GVA) by the ICT and finance industries is almost 5 times greater in Flanders than in the poorer south. This is reflected in the main types of employment with service and TNC HQ activities dominating here whilst the Walloon region has a legacy of old heavy and coal mining industries. This will have affected job prospects for many years after they had closed – a negative multiplier effect. The Walloon region will have had a spiral of decline as the old traditional industries died off, which will have required investment by government, as is shown by the Aeropole Science Park. However, this only employs 3,600 people.

Such negative economic growth in the south is reflected in fewer people with a tertiary education (only 3.5% though) and a lower life expectancy by two years. Perhaps the best indication of lower education standards is that over twice as many in the richer Flanders region can speak English. This could be due to being physically nearer to the UK, and is connected by the high speed Eurostar train to the UK, but is more likely a recognition that English is the language of business around the world. Each of these factors of education and life expectancy are social indicators of relative success, and so explain why some regions are more successful than others.

Finally, environmental criteria can be examined. In this case, the levels of atmospheric pollution are actually greater in the rich north of Flanders with more road traffic from cars and lorries, and less trees and forests to absorb that pollution. The Walloon region may have been polluted in the past with the coal mines, but that has now gone and the extensive forests here are improving air quality. So, in terms of environmental factors, it would appear that the Walloon region is more successful.

In conclusion, some regions are more successful than others for a variety of reasons and they don’t always support each other. Often economic differences will result in social and environmental deprivation as jobs, income and investment disappear from a community and many young educated people will leave looking for more opportunities elsewhere. Socially, some of the most successful cities (such as Brussels) have the highest levels of inequality, because they attract internal and international migrants who live in poor areas. They also have a poor ‘living environment’ which contributes to deprivation through congestions and pollution, lack of safe play spaces, lack of places for exercise or sport, and also through poor housing quality. It is fait to say though that poorer communities tend to have lower success levels.

Evaluate the view that successful regeneration always relies on changing the perceptions of an area. (20)

Changing the perceptions of an area is often one important criterion for determining the success of a regeneration scheme. It is regularly the case that a declining industrial area has a negative perception to the outside world, and therefore reduces the level of new investment into it. Indeed, many regeneration schemes for such areas seek to change these external perceptions, and this may be a key element of them. I shall consider this question in the context of the city of Liverpool.

Liverpool has had many identities over time. In the 18th and 19th centuries it was huge port, in the 1960s a leader of popular culture and in the late 20^th century it was badly affected by industrial decline. In the 1980s Liverpool experienced economic and social deprivation along with high levels of crime and vandalism – creating a very negative perception.

Since the 1980s there have been a number of different approaches to regenerating the city which have radically changed the urban environment and its image. After race riots in 1981 in Toxteth, the Mersey­side Development Corporation set about reclaiming 4 km² of derelict land by creating new housing and thousands of new jobs in the city. The first flagship regeneration project in Liverpool was the Albert Dock, a former derelict dock that was opened as a tourist attraction in 1988. Today it attracts over 4 million visitors a year.

Liverpool’s recent rebranding has been dominated by culture (popular music, arts and sport). Liverpool has a rich history in popular music (notably the Beatles), performing and the visual arts. It also has two Premier League foot­ball teams. Since 2003, when Liverpool was awarded the status of European Capital of Culture 2008, the city centre has been trans­formed by major investment. In addition to the nearly £4 billion invested in regen­eration, the city’s economy is said to have been boosted by an annual £800 million of additional income.

More recently, in 2016 work began on the £200+ million development of ‘New Chinatown’ in Liverpool. The project is centred along Great George Street, close to the location of the existing Chinese community in the city, and within sight of the Anglican Cathedral. The development includes over 800 apartments, over 150,000 ft² of commercial and retail space, and a new high-class hotel and luxury spa. The developers, North Point Global, say that the project will ‘transform Europe’s oldest Chinese community’ and its designs were presented to the delegation of the Chinese president Xi Jinping when he visited Manchester in 2015.

Much backing for the project comes from Chinese investment partners, some based in Hong Kong. North Point Global state that they have had strong interest from China, with a ‘significant number’ of retail units already purchased by businesses looking to expand into the UK. From a UK perspective, the scheme was vaunted as an example of the ‘Northern Powerhouse’ project – the brainchild of former Chancellor George Osborne. There is already a strong Chinese presence within the city – there are currently 10,000 Chinese students at the universities within the city’s metropolitan boundary. The city’s association with popular music in the 1960s and 1970’s, an important perception, is still a major attraction to Chinese tourists, encouraged by the ability to fly in and out through Liverpool John Lennon airport.

To many, regeneration that just deals with perception may be regarded as being rather superficial. However, in the case of Liverpool, enhancing rather than entirely changing the perceptions have been a key part of a successful strategy.